What is Nationalism?
A political ideology that promotes common identity or interests of a particular nation. It opposes external control by foreign nations and fosters unity and belonging in a nation, based on shared language, history, and cultural heritage, encouraging unity and self-determination.
[[../sections/2.1 methods and success|2.1 methods and success]]
Rebels
La Escalera Rebellion, 1843–4
It was a joint rebellion of slaves and ‘free people of colour’, and some of their leaders believed they would have Britain’s support.
aim: This rebellion was essentially one of blacks and mulattos wanting to end slavery and achieve equal rights, rather than a clear struggle for Cuban independence.
The rebellion spread quickly across western Cuba. One of the uprisings, in November 1843, took place in Matanzas province — and was led by a black female slave known as ==‘La Negra Carlota’==.
Cuba’s captain-general, ==Leopoldo O’Donnell==, and the ==Comision Militar== quickly suppressed from January to March 1844 the rebellion.
Outcome: The Cuban authorities then exiled all free blacks not born in Cuba — as O’Donnell assumed they had stirred up the black slaves.
Significance: This rebellion was the most significant one between Aponte’s 1812 rebellion, and the First War of Independence that began in 1868.
The First War of Independence, 1868–78
also known as the Ten Years’ War.
Origin: began in the east of Cuba, where there were fewer railways and roads — making it more difficult for the Spanish authorities to transport troops to deal with any rebellion. -> more prepared to take armed action, centred on the town of Bayamo, in Oriente province.
Early actions
Their main leaders were criollos, and included ==Carlos Manuel de Céspedes==, Salvador Cisneros Betancourt, Ignacio Agramonte and Francisco Vicente Aguilera.
During the summer of 1868, the plotters organised a widespread refusal to pay taxes, while also spreading independence literature in the region, and trying to get support from pro-reform Cubans in the west for an independence rebellion.
Early Start
%% Although Céspedes planned in July 1868 the rebellion to begin, the majority decided on December. However, rumours that the authorities in Havana had discovered their plot and were about to crush it — led %% Céspedes to begin the revolt on his own plantation on 10 October 1868. There, he freed all his slaves and announced the independence of Cuba.
Response: Cuba captain-general, ==General Francisco Lersundi y Hormaechea==, took little action early on.
Success and joining people
On 18 October, Céspedes was able to capture the town of Bayamo. He then officially declared the independence of Cuba in what became known as the Grito de Yara (Cry of Yara) — the ‘cry’ referred to the shout that had launched the independence movements in Latin America in the 1820s.
Joining people: When news of this spread, other risings against Spain broke out in the eastern provinces of Oriente and Camaguey. In addition, several younger reformists in Havana decided to join him. By early 1869, the colonial authorities were faced with a rapidly expanding rebellion that lasted for ten years.
Response: Spain sent more than ==100,000 troops to crush this rebellion== — the insurgents were helped by the support from peasants, who had a good knowledge of the local landscape. This enabled them to: move quickly through the countryside, have forewarning of troop movements, conceal their forces and pick favourable sites for combat.
The rebels were more used to tropical climate. As a result, Cuba experienced an increasingly bitter ten years’ war.
Spanish Tactics
trocha militar (Trench)
==Lersundi== ordered the building of a defensive military trench, more than 50km (30 miles) long — the trocha militar — across the middle of the island, from Moron in the north to Jucaro in the south. It was built between 1869 and 1872, by black slaves and Chinese coolies, and was defended by a line of more than forty forts.
aim: restrict the rebel areas to the east and centre of Cuba, and so preventing any serious unrest in the west
People Removal of rural areas
aim: to counter the rebels’ guerrilla activities
Lersundi also ordered the measure: - forcible removal of people from rural areas into concentration camps and towns controlled by the government; - young men who were found outside their home area were arrested and executed
why effective: because of divisions within the rebel leadership about whether to spread the rebellion to the west. For, in 1875, when ==Máximo Gómez== was finally allowed to take forces to the west, he crossed it with little difficulty.
Division within rebel
It was these divisions, as much as the military campaigns waged by Spanish forces, which ultimately led to the failure of this First Independence War. These differences were a combination of regionalism, conflicting class interests, arguments over military strategy and emerging racial and nationalist tensions.
1869 rebel assembly
In April 1869, a rebel Constituent Assembly met in Guaimaro, officially proclaimed the birth of the new ==‘Republic of Cuba in Arms’== and drew up a liberal constitution. But it failed to reach a compromise over the slavery issue: it stated that all inhabitants of the new republic were free — but that the freed slaves should remain as paid employees on the plantations.
The meeting also called for annexation by the US, and set up a system by which military leaders could not act without the approval of the civilian leadership.
Conflicts and killings within: This latter move was suggested by ==Ignacio Agramonte== who — like several others — had begun to worry about the authoritarian tendencies being shown by ==Céspedes==. In 1873, Céspedes was deposed as president and briefly replaced by Betancourt. In February 1874, Céspedes was killed in a skirmish with Spanish troops and in 1875, ==Tomás Estrada Palma== became the new president of the rebel republic.
Consequence: By then, many of the early leaders — drawn mostly from Cuba’s criollo élites — were either dead or in exile. Meanwhile, younger and more radical leaders had become military leaders: these included the Dominican ==Máximo Gómez== and the Cuban ==mulatto Antonio Maceo==.
after 1876, more disagreement and worse situation
funds from Cuban exiles in the US began to dry up when the rebel agenda became more radical;
while, after 1876, the restoration of political peace in Spain meant the Spanish authorities in Cuba could once again concentrate on defeating the rebels.
Disagreement between new military leaders and criollo political leaders
The new military leaders of the rebel forces want to fight wars in the wealthier western regions of Cuba. - They argued that, by destroying the region’s many sugar mills, they would simultaneously deprive the Spanish administration of vital funds and leave thousands of slaves and peasants free to join the struggle for independence. In this war, they believed Spain would soon be forced to give independence to Cuba. This was opposed by the criollo political leaders - they feared this would alienate the peninsulares who owned most of the big sugar plantations in the west, and who opposed independence.
Consequence: most ==rebel military leaders lost power==, either: - removed from their commands (e.g. Gómez was deprived of his command) - resigned in the face of constant interference from the civilian leaders -> the rebels failed to make any significant breakthrough, and a stalemate soon developed.
End of War
The newly appointed captain-general in Cuba, ==General Arsenio Martínez-Campos y Antón==, took advantage of these divisions within rebel ranks, and promised reforms and an amnesty.
In December 1877, Estrada was captured and Gómez called for a ceasefire. The war was finally ended in February 1878 by the ==Pact of Zanjón==.
Outcome: As well as granting an amnesty to all rebels, it gave Cuba limited autonomy rights and also freed all slaves and Chinese who had fought in the rebel Liberator Army.
Refuse to cease: Led by ==Antonio Maceo==, they rejected the treaty at Baragua in March 1878 and announced intention of continuing the independence war. - Outcome: with most rebels having abandoned the struggle, Maceo’s ==‘Protest of Baragua’== had limited impact, and the remaining rebel forces were eventually forced to give up and sign the treaty in May 1878 — Gómez, Maceo and several other leaders then went into exile. - Despite a short-lived uprising in August 1879 — known as the ==Guerra Chiquita== (Little War) — no other rebel break out until 1895.
The Second War of Independence, 1895-8
main leaders: ==Jose Marti== and ==Maximo Gomez==
Early actions
1st April, 1895, José Martí and Máximo Gómez, landed with a small band of revolutionaries on the southern coast of Cuba. At the same time, ==Antonio Maceo== — and his brother, José — landed with a small force on the north coast of Oriente province, to support the February uprising.
19 May, Martí was killed in a Spanish ambush. - -> Gómez and Maceo organised a revolutionary government meeting the need for military leaders to have more independence: - In September 1895, rebel leaders formed a constituent assembly which then approved a constitution. - Gómez and Maceo were able to get this to include a clause that made it clear that the civilian authorities could only intervene in military operations if ‘absolutely necessary’ to achieve important political ends. - The constituent assembly then chose Salvador Cisneros Betancourt, a wealthy aristocrat who had fought in the First Independence War as president; - while Tomás Estrada Palma (the last president of the Republic in 1878) was appointed as the foreign representative of the ‘Republic in Arms’. - Gómez was then appointed as commander-in-chief, with Maceo as second in command.
The rebellion spread rapidly during 1895. By the end of the year, Gómez and Maceo commanded a force of more than 30,000 rebels — 80 per cent of them were black, and were referred to by white Spanish troops as the mambises. (==Former slave support==).
Divisions among rebel leaders: these were over the question of US involvement, and whether the rebel forces should take the war into the rich sugar lands of central and western Cuba. -> Gómez and Maceo crossed ==the old trocha line== in October 1895 and, by the end of the year, their forces were threatening Matanzas.
==la tea (torch or firelighter)==: strategy of burning ‘everything that could provide income to the enemy’. many cane fields, mills and plantation houses were set on fire.
By January 1896, rebel forces under Gómez marched to the outskirts of Havana itself, proving this war of independence to be much more successful than the first one.
Response: Martínez-Campos, who refused to resort to severe repression of the civilian population, resigned as captain-general and returned to Spain.
Spannish Repression
New captain-general: General ==Valeriano Weyler==. Unlike his predecessor, he was more than prepared to impose a harsh repression and to follow a scorched-earth policy in order to keep Cuba for Spain.
Push to east
Weyler was determined to push the rebel forces back to the east, behind the trocha constructed during the First Independence War. This was strengthened, and he also built a new one west of Havana, from Mariel to Majana. -> His actions forced the rebels to fight in the open, and ==Maceo’s== forces suffered many casualties in February 1896 as they tried to join up with ==Gómez’s== troops.
Soon, Weyler had more than 60,000 troops at his disposal, and he also set up a communications system to give advance warning of rebel troop movements.
Outcome: Nonetheless, Maceo was able to join up with Gómez, and in March the rebel forces received fresh weapons delivered by ==Calixto García==, who then took command of the entire eastern region.
Concentration camps and strategic hamlets
To make full use of recontrado method of intimidating and controlling the civilian population: - the forcible removal of the populations from entire towns and villages in those areas where the rebels were active. - these civilians would then be concentrated (reconcentracion) in centres that could be defended easily by his troops. -> deprive the rebels of support and food. - Ideally, these new population centres would be provided with food grown in special zones of cultivation. However, if this was not possible, then Weyler was prepared to accept that these reconcentrados might starve.
He also insisted that the entire population had to be registered — those refusing military orders were found guilty of treason and executed. The first concentration orders were issued in October 1896, in the western area of Pinar del Rio, where Maceo’s forces were still active. -> However, his harsh methods were often unsuccessful as many civilians, rather than passively accept possible disease or even starvation in the concentration camps, decided to join the rebels in the mountains.
Rebel on Defensive
Inner Conflicts and Loss
Problem faced: - the tactic of ==la tea==, which increasingly angered the sugar and coffee plantation owners. - Civilians opposed Gómez’s promotion of lower-middle-class and black individuals to officer roles based on military skill, favoring the appointment of white professionals regardless of experience. To address the political tension, Gómez summoned Maceo to the east for support.
December 1896, ==Maceo==’s forces managed to evade Weyler’s new trocha and established his camp outside Havana, but he was surprised by a larger Spanish force, and was killed in a small skirmish along with Gómez’s son. -> Maceo’s death was a serious loss to the rebels — not only was he an extremely able military leader, but he was also very popular. However, the shock of Maceo’s death led the civilian leaders to leave Gómez’s military independence intact.
Spain follows up attacks, countered by rebel
Almost 40,000 fresh Spanish troops were sent to central Cuba and, although ==Gómez’s== forces were outnumbered by about ten to one, they fought determinedly.
Using ==guerrilla tactics==, they not only eluded Weyler’s main forces for some time, but carried out surprise attacks on Spanish columns, which inflicted heavy losses.
-> As a result, by May 1897, Weyler’s offensive had lost its momentum. Nonetheless — despite some victories by ==Calixto García== — the Liberation Army seemed unable to launch a new offensive.
Spain reaction
The Second Independence War had been extremely costly for Spain — more than 200,000 troops had been sent to Cuba since 1895.
Since August 1896, Spain had also faced another rebellion in the Philippines. -> With so many troops tied up in Cuba, Spain had been forced to open negotiations with the rebels in the Philippines and reach a compromise.
Spain ends the war, granted dominion status
In June 1897, a more liberal government came to power in Spain that decided to end hostilities against the Cuban rebels. Spain then granted dominion status (a form of ==home rule==) to Cuba, and a ‘home rule’ government — under ==José María Gálvez==, an Autonomist leader from the 1870s — was allowed to come to power in Cuba.
Refuse negotiation, continue fighting
==Gómez== — who knew that the ‘home rulers’ were a relatively small group — rejected the reforms and all offers of negotiations with Spain. The fighting thus continued, with the rebels determined to achieve complete independence from Spain. It seemed to many that the rebels would soon achieve this.